Introduction
Food and wine tourism has become a significant part of the growing tourism industry as affluent baby boomers become “less destination oriented and more experience-oriented.” (Ontario Ministry of Tourism, 2008, p.13). Meeting the demands for new food and wine tourism produces benefits for agricultural producers, individual businesses, and local economies “as it matures the wine sector, cultivates a ‘buy local’ culture, and reinvents the way agricultural produce is delivered to the consumer” (Stewart, Bramble, & Ziraldo, 2006, p. 303). From beverage tasting to farm tours to cooking classes, food and wine tourism is about experiences. (O’Neil & Palmer, 2004; Hall & Mitchel, 2007; du Rand & Heath, 2006) How does one of Maslow’s basic needs for survival, food, (Anderson, 2007) become elevated to an experience that “can be performed, narrated, displayed or somehow contained within the producer-consumer exchange” (Mason & O’Mahony, 2007, p. 512)? Through food and wine tourism in the experience economy, sensory experiences, “the element connecting production and consumption” (Anderson, 2007, p. 47), raise food and wine “to novelty, incongruity, and complexity” (Anderson, 2007, p. 51). Current literature about food and wine tourism establishes a strong foundation within the experience economy, reflecting tangible experiences and economic engagement through cooperative and competitive culinary clusters.
The Experience Economy
Literature about food and wine tourism shows strong links to the experience economy (Hall & Mitchell 2005; Hashimoto & Telfer, 2006; O’Neil & Palmer, 2004; Pine & Gilmour, 1999). Pine and Gilmour (1999) identified the shift in the economy from commodities to services to experiences. Global competitiveness, new technologies, growing affluence and the challenge to remain profitable have led to a larger part of the economy being based on memorable experiences rather than commodities or services. In the experience economy, buying a coffee in a bookstore café, amid a cultural and entertainment backdrop, “establishes a distinct experience that envelops the purchase of coffee” (Pine & Gilmour, 1999, p. 1). The experience is different from buying other cups of coffee in other retail outlets. Differentiation through memorable experience is “the competitive edge required for survival and growth” (O’Neil & Palmer, 2004, p. 272) in the progression of economic values. The literature shows that experiences, especially new experiences, are now the final out-put of economic production (Anderson, 2007; Pine & Gilmour, 1999). Like the bookstore coffee, memorable experiences are the ‘wow’ factor of engaged and sensory interactions beyond any practical need for the senses to be utilized (Florida, 2002; Pine & Gilmour, 1999). Consumer decisions become based upon anticipation (Florida, 2002; Pikkemaat & Schuckert, 2007), complex cultural needs (Anderson, 2007), or engagement of the senses (Anderson, 2007; Pine & Gilmour, 1999). Whether the participation in the experience is active or passive, educational or entertaining, the engaged experience is “distinct from the normally uneventful world of goods and services” (Pine & Gilmour, 1999, p. 10).
The Tangible Experience
One theme of the experience economy explored in the literature of food and wine tourism is the tangible experience (Florida, 2002; Hall & Mitchell 2005; O’Neil & Palmer, 2004; Pine & Gilmour, 1999). Under the service economy, many experiences are intangible; they are everyday, banal, and whether they are practical or not, are in no way memorable (Pine & Gilmour, 1999). Intangible experiences can also be a part of tourism where the unknown qualities of the product, the uncertainty of the weather or the boredom of an unremarkable journey leave the tourist unengaged and hoping for the best (Pine & Gilmour, 1999; Weirmair, 2004). Florida (2002) attests to the desire for intense experiences in the real world where creativity and anticipation are significant attributes of the experience economy. To achieve the “imaginative hedonism” (Florida, 2002, p. 167) of the tangible experience, Pine and Gilmour (1999) suggest establishing an experience that will capture active participation and cause absorption or immersion in another dimension of experience via aesthetics, entertainment, education or escapism. Whatever the experience outcome, the literature suggests that the desire to continue the experience, to remember it, to intensely relive it, leads to the purchase of mementos or products associated with the experience (Hall & Mitchell 2005; O’Neil & Palmer, 2004; Pine & Gilmour, 1999). The better the experience, the more mementos will be purchased, reflecting the added value process of the experience economy (Pine & Gilmour, 1999).
Food and wine tourism is built upon the tangible experience. One example is vineyard and winery tours and tastings (Hall & Mitchell 2005; O’Neil & Palmer, 2004). Experiences ranging from the anticipation of the visit to a famous or unknown winery, the taste of a new vintage, barrel samples in the cellar, meeting the wine-maker, purchased wine to be re-experienced again at home, or finally, buying the wine at the local liquor store post-visit, are part of the tangible wine experience. Marquee restaurants have also become adept at continuing the experience of a highly anticipated and memorable dinner through customer preference data-base reservation systems (Open Table), by selling cookbooks, take-away ingredients, and souvenirs, and by providing on-line recipes or promoting exclusive cooking lessons with the chef. Anderson (2007) suggests a fine dinner is more than nourishment; there is social engagement and the lasting stimulus of the new and innovative experience. As pointed out in the literature, when the relationship between the product and the experience is strong, the potential for re-experiencing it afterwards through products, mementos or purchases, is greatest (Hall & Mitchell 2005; O’Neil & Palmer, 2004; Pine & Gilmour, 1999).
Food and Wine Clusters
If the experience economy is where food and wine tourism is situated, then the sensory experience is enriched by the strengths and attributes of the experience location, the place within the place (Pine & Gilmour, 1999; Stewart et al., 2006). One theme that runs through the literature is the benefit of cooperation among clusters of entities in the experience economy (Hall & Mitchell, 2005; du Rand & Heath 2006; Porter, 2000). One lone vineyard or an isolated cheese-
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Local Demand Conditions Related and Supporting Industries |
Regional Food and Wine Cluster
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^
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| Food and wine tourists seeking memorable experiences |
Figure 1: An illustration of a food and wine cluster anchored in the experience economy through a local narrative, supported by local demand conditions, and attracting tourists seeking memorable experiences. Adapted from Porter (2000).
maker is less of an attraction experience than several related firms offering more experiences (Plummer, Telfer & Hashimoto, 2006). The local benefit of sustainable growth in economic clusters is wide spread in the literature. Porter (2000) records the benefits of the Napa Valley wine cluster, in which the tourism sector was but one small part of the dynamic and successful mix of related and supporting industries. Many other regions from Waterloo, Ontario to New Zealand have found the synergies of food and wine tourism playing a “vital role in regional tourism development, employment generation, business growth, and corporate investment” (O’Neil & Palmer, 2004, p. 270). An enhanced experience will arise from a cluster of entities; their proximity enhances the experience (Porter, 2000). Their cooperation portends the success of a region, as it is not so much what one entity itself has, but what the cluster can do together (Plummer et al., 2006; Porter, 2000). This adds brand recognition to the relationship between the terroir of production, the enjoyment of the product and the region’s identity (Hall & Mitchell, 2005; du Rand & Heath, 2006). A cluster of entities “reinforces the relationship between the environment in which food is produced and the development of destination image and brand” (Hall & Mitchell, 2005, p. 86). The literature concludes that establishing a definitive brand through the cluster, leads to strong representations, where the food and wine tourist make immediate connections between product, region, and experience for example, the wines of Burgundy or the cuisine of New Orleans (Hashimoto & Telfer, 2006; Plummer et al., 2006).
A second theme in the literature related to the success of food and wine tourism clusters involves the development of a narrative about individual entities or the region as a whole. Many authors state the story sells the experience; the engagement of the narrative and the connection with the sensory experience produces a meaningful interaction between people, places and products (Anderson, 2007; Hashimoto & Telfer, 2006; Mason & O’Mahony, 2007; Pine & Gilmour, 1999). Narratives fill out the experience, as “food is associated with people, and people with food” (Mason & O’Mahony, 2007, p. 507). Connecting the farmer, the winemaker, or the chef with a product, an event or a region, establishes authenticity (Pikkemaat & Schuckert, 2007), creates trust, and delivers a memorable experience (Mason & O’Mahony, 2007; Pine & Gilmour, 1999). The narrative combines with the sensory experience, to be fully engaging and potentially fruitful for all participants (Mason & O’Mahony, 2007; Plummer et al., 2006). In the literature, narratives enhance the authentic, meaningful and engaging experiences, significant factors in personal fulfilment in the experience economy (du Rand & Heath, 2006; Florida, 2002; Pikkemaat & Schuckert, 2007)
A third theme regarding clusters relates to the delineation of a food and wine region or cluster. The authors contend that there should be some logic to the border of a cluster or region (Hashimoto & Telfer 2006; Plummer et al., 2006; Porter, 2000). A cluster that is too exclusive may not generate the benefits of rivalry and cooperation or demand conditions (Porter, 2000). Spread too wide or too inclusive, the cluster will lack integrity. As with water poured into wine, there will be no flavour to the actual identity of the cluster (Hashimoto & Telfer, 2006). Borders, for example, could be based on an easy day’s travel, historical production areas or on the narrative that links specific entities together (Hashimoto & Telfer, 2006). Plummer et al. (2006) found that a clear definition of a region was a significant competitive advantage; challenges occur when there is a lack of focus on what constitutes the region or cluster and therefore, what defines the brand. Within the region, there is “a need to better understand indicators of success of partnerships” (Plummer et al., 2006, p. 202) including the borders of the region.
| Food and Wine Tourism Activities | Aesthetic | Entertain-ment | Educa-tional |
| Farmers markets/farm stands | x | x | x |
| Farm tours | | x | x |
| Artisan products (cheese, bread, preserves, etc.), tours and retail sales | x | | x |
| Restaurants/cafes | x | x | |
| Cooking schools | | | x |
| Vineyards/wineries tours and tastings | x | x | x |
| Breweries/cideries tours and tastings | x | x | x |
| Museums/historic sites | | x | x |
| Harbours/fisherman’s wharf | | x | x |
| Industry tours | | x | x |
| Agricultural stays/retreats | | x | x |
| Agricultural Festivals | | x | x |
Figure 2: Some possible food and wine tourism activities and the type of experience they generate. Adapted from Pine and Gilmour (1999).
Innovation in Food and Wine Tourism
The literature is inconclusive on the ability of food and wine tourism to successfully create new and innovative experiences and products (Mason & O’Mahony, 2007; Plummer et al., 2006). Some authors suggest cooperation and rivalry among local entities will lead to innovation and competitive advantage (Porter, 2000; Hashimoto & Telfer, 2006). Porter (2000) states, “in a cluster, the whole is greater than the sum of the parts” (p. 32). Through cooperative relationships between entities come regional strategies, product linkages, niche products and inter-regional business to enhance the food and wine experience. Creating new products like food and wine trails that enhance the tourism product and sell more goods to the region makes sense for all the entities in the cluster (Mason & O’Mahony, 2007). Cooperation within a region will enhance the experience and marketing potential for “product development, packaging, positioning, and the promotions of the product” (du Rand & Heath 2006, p. 209). This is especially important for some small and medium enterprises, which may lack the resources or current knowledge to create innovative products (Pikkemaat & Weiermair, 2007; Plummer et al, 2006). Plummer et al. (2006) suggest that when cooperative ideas are in alignment, the result will be “a positive collaborative relationship in which all benefit[ed]” (p.198) in the creation of a sustainable competitive strategy for regional growth (Pikkemaat & Weiermair 2007).
However, there are questions raised by some authors about how innovative, truly aligned or long lasting the relationships within the cluster actually can be (Pikkemaat & Weiermair, 2007; Plummer et al, 2006). Their studies indicate short-term growth and innovation through cooperation. After a few years, the cooperative product is no longer successful in producing benefits for all the businesses in the cluster. Similarities and alliances between competitive entities produced only minor innovations (Pikkemaat & Weiermair 2007). In the case of the Wellington-Waterloo County Ale Trail, the relationship of brewers and related businesses collapsed after several successful and popular years (Plummer et al., 2006). Changes in the outlook and needs of the different members (brewers and non-brewers), funding challenges and leadership problems contributed to the demise (Plummer et al., 2006). Plummer et al. (2006) suggest “incompatibility of intentions, competitiveness among members and unclear/altered goals” (p. 198) were a product of immediate success and a lack of reflection on the broader goals of the cluster. The literature suggests there is very large challenge in bringing together competing, individual entities to work together in a tourist product; maintaining profitability, providing tourism services and selling a retail product is a challenging mix (Mason & O’Mahony, 2007; Pikkemaat & Weiermair, 2007).
Areas for Further Research
Within this literature about food and wine tourism in the experience economy, there are several areas for more study.
- Identify the culinary tourist. Are they baby boomers with money and leisure time, the New Economic Order (NEOs) seeking new, innovative experiences, or the Cultural Creatives building enriched communities of like-minded people?
- Establish support for food and wine tourism. Combining public and private support for product innovation and profitability. Can the mix of competing small enterprises, entrepreneurialism, and DMOs be combined to reach a broad regional goal?
- Maintain the “wow” experience. Once a “market ready” product is established, how do we keep it current as a fresh, sustainable experience?
Conclusion
Current literature places food and wine tourism within the experience economy, where memorable and novel experiences are important and “the value of the experience lingers in the memory of any individual who was engaged by the event” (Pine & Gilmour, 1999, p.4). As shown in the literature, food and wine tourism, through its multi-sensory experiences becomes a tangible tourism experience. Aligning the experience with a product, a place, and people through mechanisms of narratives, product branding, and local cooperation can enhances the potential for sustainable regional growth and authentic and memorable experiences.
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